Wikicars - User contributions [en]

Battery Technology

2006-07-09T20:45:51Z

Mcniel: /* The Future */

==Brief History==
[[Image:250px-GM_EV-1-.jpg|frame|General Motors EV1]]
In 1990, the auto industry was forced into establishing an electric passenger car market when California’s Air Resources Board (CARB) implemented a Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) program: 2% of the vehicles produced for sale in California had to be ZEVs, increasing to 5% in 2001 and 10 percent in 2003. The CARB attempted to set a minimum quota for the use of electric cars, but this was withdrawn after complaints by auto manufacturers that the quotas were economically unfeasible due to a lack of consumer demand. By 1996, CARB backed down on the 1998 deadline for the program, and in 2001, the program relaxed its standards to include “partial” zero emission vehicles (PZEV). Since the California program was designed by the CARB to reduce air pollution and not to promote electric vehicles, the zero emissions requirement in California was replaced by a combination requirement of a tiny number of zero-emissions vehicles (to promote research and development) and a much larger number of partial zero-emissions vehicles (PZEVs), which is an administrative designation for an super ultra low emissions vehicle (SULEV), which emits polution of about ten percent of that of an ordinary low emissions vehicle when in operation and is also certified for zero evaporative emissions at all times.

With the advent of the electric car came the need for advanced battery technologies to make them a viable alternative in the modern automotive market.

==Introduction==
[[Image:Escape_Hybrid_battery_pack.jpg|frame|Ford Escape Hybrid battery pack]]
Production of purely [[Electric Vehicles|electric vehicles]] for commercial use has fallen by the wayside. General Motors, Ford, Honda and Toyota have all discontinued their electric vehicle (EV) programs - despite growing concern for the environment and over ever-increasing fuel costs, the market for EVs never really flourished.

Evolving from these early electric vehicles, today's hybrid vehicles use electricity stored in batteries to assist the gasoline engine and to completely power the vehicle while idling or at consistent low speeds. Because these hybrids also use a gas engine, the battery is substantially smaller than those that were used in the purely electric vehicles. Vehicles such as the [[Toyota Prius]], [[Honda Civic Hybrid]] and [[Ford Escape Hybrid]] include drive-train management systems that automatically decide when to use the batteries or internal-combustion engine.

However, improvements in battery technology may one day resurrect [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_electric_vehicle EVs] by extending their driving range. Electric vehicle advocates and engineers are now looking at gas-electric hybrids, which, unlike current hybrid offerings, could be [[Plug-In Hybrids|plugged in]] to provide a greater capacity for running purely on electric power. A [[Plug-In Hybrids|'plug-in']] hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a hybrid which has additional battery capacity and the ability to be recharged from an external electrical outlet. The vehicle can be used for short trips of moderate speed without needing the internal combustion engine (ICE) component of the vehicle, thereby saving fuel costs.

==Battery Types==

===Lead Acid===

The lead acid battery in a conventional car contains enough energy to drive a small electric motor; these batteries are designed to deliver a burst of current for a short period of time only. Otherwise, the battery is only needed to support accessories such as the radio, lighting, power windows, etc. while the engine is not running. A hybrid vehicle uses a conventional lead acid battery for all the same reasons that a conventional car does; however, a hybrid also has a rechargeable deep cycle battery. The difference is that hybrid vehicles use electric motors to provide some portion of their driving force, and therefore need a great deal of stored electrical energy. And unlike gasoline engines, electric motors can be greater than 90 percent efficient at using that electrical energy.

Lead acid batteries were found to have too many limitations, making their continued use impractical. Because they are so heavy, it is unreasonable to add more or larger units in order to cope with the higher electrical demands of hybrid vehicles. They are also relatively slow charging, and do not lend themselves to deep cycling - a full discharge causes extra strain, and each cycle robs the battery of a small amount of capacity. They also pose more environmental concerns regarding proper disposal/recycling.

Lead-free alternatives, such as nickel metal hydride and lithium ion batteries, are already on the market in electric and electric-hybrid vehicles, and offer several advantages over conventional lead acid starter batteries. Performance and environmental benefits include:

*Higher energy (power) density
*Reduced weight/volume
*Longer battery life
*Improved fuel economy due to lighter weight and higher energy capacity
*Less material used, lower toxicity, and potentially recyclable

===Nickel Metal Hydride===
[[Image:Prius_NiMH.jpg|frame|Toyota Prius NiMH battery]]

A '''[[Battery Technology|nickel metal hydride]]''' battery (abbreviated NiMH) is a type of rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery, but has a hydride absorbing alloy for the anode instead of cadmium, which is an environmental hazard; therefore, it is less detrimental to the environment. Nickel metal hydride batteries are lightweight, have a longer shelf life, and produce more energy than lead acid batteries.
For example: the first generation GM EV1s used lead-acid batteries in 1996, and a second generation batch with nickel metal hydride batteries in 1999. The "Gen I" cars got 55 to 95 miles (90 to 150 km) per charge with the lead acid batteries, while "Gen II" cars got an improved 75 to 150 miles (120 to 240 km) per charge with nickel metal hydride batteries.

Most - not all - current [[Hybrid Cars|hybrids]] have a rechargeable NiMH battery as an integral part of their hybrid system, to assist in fuel savings and lower emissions. Applications of NiMH type batteries include hybrid vehicles such as the [[Honda Insight]] and [[Toyota Prius]]. NiMH batteries are a major step up from the lead acid variety; however, while more powerful than lead acid batteries, they have not provided the long-term cost benefits that were hoped for - the power of nickel batteries comes from the raw material, which is getting more expensive due to increased demand.

===Lithium Ion===

'''Lithium ion''' batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-Ion) are a type of rechargeable battery commonly used in consumer electronics. They are currently one of the most popular types of battery, with one of the best energy-to-weight ratios, no memory effect and a slow loss of charge when not in use. Lithium ion battery applications have the potential of eclipsing the NiMH battery in hybrid vehicles [http://www.hybridcars.com/lithium-ion-hybrid-batteries.html]; compared to a lithium ion battery, the NiMH battery's ''volumetric energy density'' (amount of potential energy stored in the battery) is lower and self-discharge is higher. Lithium ion batteries are smaller, lighter, and have fewer volatile gases than NiMH batteries. The production cost of these lighter, higher-capacity lithium batteries is gradually decreasing as the technology matures and production volumes increase through mass processing, which can scale to the high volumes required for the rapidly growing hybrid market - without a corresponding jump in price. However, they are not currently scaled for use in [[Hybrid Cars|hybrid]] vehicle applications - while they have potential cost-saving attributes, they can be dangerous if mistreated, and, because they are less durable, may have a shorter lifespan compared to other battery types.

===Lithium Ion Polymer===

'''Lithium ion polymer''' batteries, or more commonly lithium polymer batteries (Abbreviated Li-Poly or LiPo) are rechargeable batteries which have technologically evolved from lithium ion batteries. Ultimately, the lithium salt electrolyte is not held in an organic solvent like in the proven lithium ion design, but in a solid polymer composite such as polyacrylonitrile. There are many advantages of this design over the classic lithium ion design, including the fact that the solid polymer electrolyte is not flammable (unlike the organic solvent that the Li-Ion cell uses); thus, these batteries are less hazardous if mistreated.

===Zinc-air===

'''Zinc-air''' batteries, also called "zinc-air fuel cells" are a non-rechargeable electro-chemical battery powered by the oxidation of zinc with oxygen from the air. These batteries have very high energy densities and are relatively inexpensive to produce. Zinc-air batteries have properties of fuel cells as well as batteries: the zinc is the fuel; the rate of the reaction can be controlled by controlling the air flow; and used zinc/electrolyte paste can be removed from the cell and replaced with fresh paste. Research is being conducted in powering electric vehicles with zinc-air batteries.

Both Li-Poly and Zinc-air batteries have demonstrated energy densities high enough to deliver range and recharge times comparable to conventional vehicles.

==The Future==
[[Image:Mitsubishi_Concept_CT.jpg|frame|Mitsubishi Concept-CT Hybrid Electric Vehicle]]
Based on further changes agreed upon in 2003, the ZEV program is now scheduled to restart in 2005 with a set of complicated rules and tables that will allow carmakers to use low-speed, low-range electric cars, hybrids, full function electric cars and ultimately [http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fuelcell.shtml fuel cells] to pass prescribed standards and quantities up through 2017. These ZEV mandates could significantly increase the number of hybrids on the road.

The future of battery electric vehicles depends primarily upon the availability of batteries with high energy densities, power density, long life, and reasonable cost as all other aspects such as motors, motor controllers, and chargers are fairly mature and cost competitive with ICE components. As hybrids become more refined, battery life, capacity and energy density will improve and the combustion engine will be used less (particular with [[Plug-In Hybrids|PHEVs]]). At some point it may become economic for hybrids to be sold without their ICE, finally leading to [[Electric Vehicles|Battery Electric Vehicles]] (BEVs) being commonplace.

Critics claim that batteries pose a serious environmental hazard requiring significant disposal or recycling costs. Some of the chemicals used in the manufacture of advanced batteries such as Li-ion, Li ion polymer and zinc-air are hazardous and potentially environmentally damaging. While these technologies are developed for small markets this is not a concern, but if production was to be scaled to match current car demand the risks might become unacceptable.

Supporters counter with the fact that traditional car batteries are one of the most successful recycling programs and that widespread use of battery electric vehicles would require the implementation of similar recycling regulations. More modern formulations also tend to use lighter, more biologically remediable elements such as iron, lithium, carbon and zinc. In particular, moving away from the heavy metals cadmium and chromium makes disposal less critical.

It is also not clear that batteries pose any greater risk than is currently accepted for fossil fuel based transport. Petrol and diesel powered transportation cause significant environmental damage in the form of spills, smog and distillation byproducts.

==External Links==

http://www.hybridcars.com/battery-comparison.html

http://www.evworld.com/view.cfm?section=article&storyid=1042

http://www.evworld.com/evguide.cfm?section=evguide&evtype=production

http://media.mitsubishi-motors.com/pressrelease/e/corporate/detail1269.html

Battery Technology

2006-07-09T20:45:37Z

Mcniel: /* The Future */

==Brief History==
[[Image:250px-GM_EV-1-.jpg|frame|General Motors EV1]]
In 1990, the auto industry was forced into establishing an electric passenger car market when California’s Air Resources Board (CARB) implemented a Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) program: 2% of the vehicles produced for sale in California had to be ZEVs, increasing to 5% in 2001 and 10 percent in 2003. The CARB attempted to set a minimum quota for the use of electric cars, but this was withdrawn after complaints by auto manufacturers that the quotas were economically unfeasible due to a lack of consumer demand. By 1996, CARB backed down on the 1998 deadline for the program, and in 2001, the program relaxed its standards to include “partial” zero emission vehicles (PZEV). Since the California program was designed by the CARB to reduce air pollution and not to promote electric vehicles, the zero emissions requirement in California was replaced by a combination requirement of a tiny number of zero-emissions vehicles (to promote research and development) and a much larger number of partial zero-emissions vehicles (PZEVs), which is an administrative designation for an super ultra low emissions vehicle (SULEV), which emits polution of about ten percent of that of an ordinary low emissions vehicle when in operation and is also certified for zero evaporative emissions at all times.

With the advent of the electric car came the need for advanced battery technologies to make them a viable alternative in the modern automotive market.

==Introduction==
[[Image:Escape_Hybrid_battery_pack.jpg|frame|Ford Escape Hybrid battery pack]]
Production of purely [[Electric Vehicles|electric vehicles]] for commercial use has fallen by the wayside. General Motors, Ford, Honda and Toyota have all discontinued their electric vehicle (EV) programs - despite growing concern for the environment and over ever-increasing fuel costs, the market for EVs never really flourished.

Evolving from these early electric vehicles, today's hybrid vehicles use electricity stored in batteries to assist the gasoline engine and to completely power the vehicle while idling or at consistent low speeds. Because these hybrids also use a gas engine, the battery is substantially smaller than those that were used in the purely electric vehicles. Vehicles such as the [[Toyota Prius]], [[Honda Civic Hybrid]] and [[Ford Escape Hybrid]] include drive-train management systems that automatically decide when to use the batteries or internal-combustion engine.

However, improvements in battery technology may one day resurrect [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_electric_vehicle EVs] by extending their driving range. Electric vehicle advocates and engineers are now looking at gas-electric hybrids, which, unlike current hybrid offerings, could be [[Plug-In Hybrids|plugged in]] to provide a greater capacity for running purely on electric power. A [[Plug-In Hybrids|'plug-in']] hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a hybrid which has additional battery capacity and the ability to be recharged from an external electrical outlet. The vehicle can be used for short trips of moderate speed without needing the internal combustion engine (ICE) component of the vehicle, thereby saving fuel costs.

==Battery Types==

===Lead Acid===

The lead acid battery in a conventional car contains enough energy to drive a small electric motor; these batteries are designed to deliver a burst of current for a short period of time only. Otherwise, the battery is only needed to support accessories such as the radio, lighting, power windows, etc. while the engine is not running. A hybrid vehicle uses a conventional lead acid battery for all the same reasons that a conventional car does; however, a hybrid also has a rechargeable deep cycle battery. The difference is that hybrid vehicles use electric motors to provide some portion of their driving force, and therefore need a great deal of stored electrical energy. And unlike gasoline engines, electric motors can be greater than 90 percent efficient at using that electrical energy.

Lead acid batteries were found to have too many limitations, making their continued use impractical. Because they are so heavy, it is unreasonable to add more or larger units in order to cope with the higher electrical demands of hybrid vehicles. They are also relatively slow charging, and do not lend themselves to deep cycling - a full discharge causes extra strain, and each cycle robs the battery of a small amount of capacity. They also pose more environmental concerns regarding proper disposal/recycling.

Lead-free alternatives, such as nickel metal hydride and lithium ion batteries, are already on the market in electric and electric-hybrid vehicles, and offer several advantages over conventional lead acid starter batteries. Performance and environmental benefits include:

*Higher energy (power) density
*Reduced weight/volume
*Longer battery life
*Improved fuel economy due to lighter weight and higher energy capacity
*Less material used, lower toxicity, and potentially recyclable

===Nickel Metal Hydride===
[[Image:Prius_NiMH.jpg|frame|Toyota Prius NiMH battery]]

A '''[[Battery Technology|nickel metal hydride]]''' battery (abbreviated NiMH) is a type of rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery, but has a hydride absorbing alloy for the anode instead of cadmium, which is an environmental hazard; therefore, it is less detrimental to the environment. Nickel metal hydride batteries are lightweight, have a longer shelf life, and produce more energy than lead acid batteries.
For example: the first generation GM EV1s used lead-acid batteries in 1996, and a second generation batch with nickel metal hydride batteries in 1999. The "Gen I" cars got 55 to 95 miles (90 to 150 km) per charge with the lead acid batteries, while "Gen II" cars got an improved 75 to 150 miles (120 to 240 km) per charge with nickel metal hydride batteries.

Most - not all - current [[Hybrid Cars|hybrids]] have a rechargeable NiMH battery as an integral part of their hybrid system, to assist in fuel savings and lower emissions. Applications of NiMH type batteries include hybrid vehicles such as the [[Honda Insight]] and [[Toyota Prius]]. NiMH batteries are a major step up from the lead acid variety; however, while more powerful than lead acid batteries, they have not provided the long-term cost benefits that were hoped for - the power of nickel batteries comes from the raw material, which is getting more expensive due to increased demand.

===Lithium Ion===

'''Lithium ion''' batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-Ion) are a type of rechargeable battery commonly used in consumer electronics. They are currently one of the most popular types of battery, with one of the best energy-to-weight ratios, no memory effect and a slow loss of charge when not in use. Lithium ion battery applications have the potential of eclipsing the NiMH battery in hybrid vehicles [http://www.hybridcars.com/lithium-ion-hybrid-batteries.html]; compared to a lithium ion battery, the NiMH battery's ''volumetric energy density'' (amount of potential energy stored in the battery) is lower and self-discharge is higher. Lithium ion batteries are smaller, lighter, and have fewer volatile gases than NiMH batteries. The production cost of these lighter, higher-capacity lithium batteries is gradually decreasing as the technology matures and production volumes increase through mass processing, which can scale to the high volumes required for the rapidly growing hybrid market - without a corresponding jump in price. However, they are not currently scaled for use in [[Hybrid Cars|hybrid]] vehicle applications - while they have potential cost-saving attributes, they can be dangerous if mistreated, and, because they are less durable, may have a shorter lifespan compared to other battery types.

===Lithium Ion Polymer===

'''Lithium ion polymer''' batteries, or more commonly lithium polymer batteries (Abbreviated Li-Poly or LiPo) are rechargeable batteries which have technologically evolved from lithium ion batteries. Ultimately, the lithium salt electrolyte is not held in an organic solvent like in the proven lithium ion design, but in a solid polymer composite such as polyacrylonitrile. There are many advantages of this design over the classic lithium ion design, including the fact that the solid polymer electrolyte is not flammable (unlike the organic solvent that the Li-Ion cell uses); thus, these batteries are less hazardous if mistreated.

===Zinc-air===

'''Zinc-air''' batteries, also called "zinc-air fuel cells" are a non-rechargeable electro-chemical battery powered by the oxidation of zinc with oxygen from the air. These batteries have very high energy densities and are relatively inexpensive to produce. Zinc-air batteries have properties of fuel cells as well as batteries: the zinc is the fuel; the rate of the reaction can be controlled by controlling the air flow; and used zinc/electrolyte paste can be removed from the cell and replaced with fresh paste. Research is being conducted in powering electric vehicles with zinc-air batteries.

Both Li-Poly and Zinc-air batteries have demonstrated energy densities high enough to deliver range and recharge times comparable to conventional vehicles.

==The Future==
[[Image:Mitsubishi_Concept_CT.jpg|frame|Mitsubishi Concept CT Hybrid Electric Vehicle]]
Based on further changes agreed upon in 2003, the ZEV program is now scheduled to restart in 2005 with a set of complicated rules and tables that will allow carmakers to use low-speed, low-range electric cars, hybrids, full function electric cars and ultimately [http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fuelcell.shtml fuel cells] to pass prescribed standards and quantities up through 2017. These ZEV mandates could significantly increase the number of hybrids on the road.

The future of battery electric vehicles depends primarily upon the availability of batteries with high energy densities, power density, long life, and reasonable cost as all other aspects such as motors, motor controllers, and chargers are fairly mature and cost competitive with ICE components. As hybrids become more refined, battery life, capacity and energy density will improve and the combustion engine will be used less (particular with [[Plug-In Hybrids|PHEVs]]). At some point it may become economic for hybrids to be sold without their ICE, finally leading to [[Electric Vehicles|Battery Electric Vehicles]] (BEVs) being commonplace.

Critics claim that batteries pose a serious environmental hazard requiring significant disposal or recycling costs. Some of the chemicals used in the manufacture of advanced batteries such as Li-ion, Li ion polymer and zinc-air are hazardous and potentially environmentally damaging. While these technologies are developed for small markets this is not a concern, but if production was to be scaled to match current car demand the risks might become unacceptable.

Supporters counter with the fact that traditional car batteries are one of the most successful recycling programs and that widespread use of battery electric vehicles would require the implementation of similar recycling regulations. More modern formulations also tend to use lighter, more biologically remediable elements such as iron, lithium, carbon and zinc. In particular, moving away from the heavy metals cadmium and chromium makes disposal less critical.

It is also not clear that batteries pose any greater risk than is currently accepted for fossil fuel based transport. Petrol and diesel powered transportation cause significant environmental damage in the form of spills, smog and distillation byproducts.

==External Links==

http://www.hybridcars.com/battery-comparison.html

http://www.evworld.com/view.cfm?section=article&storyid=1042

http://www.evworld.com/evguide.cfm?section=evguide&evtype=production

http://media.mitsubishi-motors.com/pressrelease/e/corporate/detail1269.html

Battery Technology

2006-07-09T20:44:02Z

Mcniel: /* The Future */

==Brief History==
[[Image:250px-GM_EV-1-.jpg|frame|General Motors EV1]]
In 1990, the auto industry was forced into establishing an electric passenger car market when California’s Air Resources Board (CARB) implemented a Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) program: 2% of the vehicles produced for sale in California had to be ZEVs, increasing to 5% in 2001 and 10 percent in 2003. The CARB attempted to set a minimum quota for the use of electric cars, but this was withdrawn after complaints by auto manufacturers that the quotas were economically unfeasible due to a lack of consumer demand. By 1996, CARB backed down on the 1998 deadline for the program, and in 2001, the program relaxed its standards to include “partial” zero emission vehicles (PZEV). Since the California program was designed by the CARB to reduce air pollution and not to promote electric vehicles, the zero emissions requirement in California was replaced by a combination requirement of a tiny number of zero-emissions vehicles (to promote research and development) and a much larger number of partial zero-emissions vehicles (PZEVs), which is an administrative designation for an super ultra low emissions vehicle (SULEV), which emits polution of about ten percent of that of an ordinary low emissions vehicle when in operation and is also certified for zero evaporative emissions at all times.

With the advent of the electric car came the need for advanced battery technologies to make them a viable alternative in the modern automotive market.

==Introduction==
[[Image:Escape_Hybrid_battery_pack.jpg|frame|Ford Escape Hybrid battery pack]]
Production of purely [[Electric Vehicles|electric vehicles]] for commercial use has fallen by the wayside. General Motors, Ford, Honda and Toyota have all discontinued their electric vehicle (EV) programs - despite growing concern for the environment and over ever-increasing fuel costs, the market for EVs never really flourished.

Evolving from these early electric vehicles, today's hybrid vehicles use electricity stored in batteries to assist the gasoline engine and to completely power the vehicle while idling or at consistent low speeds. Because these hybrids also use a gas engine, the battery is substantially smaller than those that were used in the purely electric vehicles. Vehicles such as the [[Toyota Prius]], [[Honda Civic Hybrid]] and [[Ford Escape Hybrid]] include drive-train management systems that automatically decide when to use the batteries or internal-combustion engine.

However, improvements in battery technology may one day resurrect [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_electric_vehicle EVs] by extending their driving range. Electric vehicle advocates and engineers are now looking at gas-electric hybrids, which, unlike current hybrid offerings, could be [[Plug-In Hybrids|plugged in]] to provide a greater capacity for running purely on electric power. A [[Plug-In Hybrids|'plug-in']] hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a hybrid which has additional battery capacity and the ability to be recharged from an external electrical outlet. The vehicle can be used for short trips of moderate speed without needing the internal combustion engine (ICE) component of the vehicle, thereby saving fuel costs.

==Battery Types==

===Lead Acid===

The lead acid battery in a conventional car contains enough energy to drive a small electric motor; these batteries are designed to deliver a burst of current for a short period of time only. Otherwise, the battery is only needed to support accessories such as the radio, lighting, power windows, etc. while the engine is not running. A hybrid vehicle uses a conventional lead acid battery for all the same reasons that a conventional car does; however, a hybrid also has a rechargeable deep cycle battery. The difference is that hybrid vehicles use electric motors to provide some portion of their driving force, and therefore need a great deal of stored electrical energy. And unlike gasoline engines, electric motors can be greater than 90 percent efficient at using that electrical energy.

Lead acid batteries were found to have too many limitations, making their continued use impractical. Because they are so heavy, it is unreasonable to add more or larger units in order to cope with the higher electrical demands of hybrid vehicles. They are also relatively slow charging, and do not lend themselves to deep cycling - a full discharge causes extra strain, and each cycle robs the battery of a small amount of capacity. They also pose more environmental concerns regarding proper disposal/recycling.

Lead-free alternatives, such as nickel metal hydride and lithium ion batteries, are already on the market in electric and electric-hybrid vehicles, and offer several advantages over conventional lead acid starter batteries. Performance and environmental benefits include:

*Higher energy (power) density
*Reduced weight/volume
*Longer battery life
*Improved fuel economy due to lighter weight and higher energy capacity
*Less material used, lower toxicity, and potentially recyclable

===Nickel Metal Hydride===
[[Image:Prius_NiMH.jpg|frame|Toyota Prius NiMH battery]]

A '''[[Battery Technology|nickel metal hydride]]''' battery (abbreviated NiMH) is a type of rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery, but has a hydride absorbing alloy for the anode instead of cadmium, which is an environmental hazard; therefore, it is less detrimental to the environment. Nickel metal hydride batteries are lightweight, have a longer shelf life, and produce more energy than lead acid batteries.
For example: the first generation GM EV1s used lead-acid batteries in 1996, and a second generation batch with nickel metal hydride batteries in 1999. The "Gen I" cars got 55 to 95 miles (90 to 150 km) per charge with the lead acid batteries, while "Gen II" cars got an improved 75 to 150 miles (120 to 240 km) per charge with nickel metal hydride batteries.

Most - not all - current [[Hybrid Cars|hybrids]] have a rechargeable NiMH battery as an integral part of their hybrid system, to assist in fuel savings and lower emissions. Applications of NiMH type batteries include hybrid vehicles such as the [[Honda Insight]] and [[Toyota Prius]]. NiMH batteries are a major step up from the lead acid variety; however, while more powerful than lead acid batteries, they have not provided the long-term cost benefits that were hoped for - the power of nickel batteries comes from the raw material, which is getting more expensive due to increased demand.

===Lithium Ion===

'''Lithium ion''' batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-Ion) are a type of rechargeable battery commonly used in consumer electronics. They are currently one of the most popular types of battery, with one of the best energy-to-weight ratios, no memory effect and a slow loss of charge when not in use. Lithium ion battery applications have the potential of eclipsing the NiMH battery in hybrid vehicles [http://www.hybridcars.com/lithium-ion-hybrid-batteries.html]; compared to a lithium ion battery, the NiMH battery's ''volumetric energy density'' (amount of potential energy stored in the battery) is lower and self-discharge is higher. Lithium ion batteries are smaller, lighter, and have fewer volatile gases than NiMH batteries. The production cost of these lighter, higher-capacity lithium batteries is gradually decreasing as the technology matures and production volumes increase through mass processing, which can scale to the high volumes required for the rapidly growing hybrid market - without a corresponding jump in price. However, they are not currently scaled for use in [[Hybrid Cars|hybrid]] vehicle applications - while they have potential cost-saving attributes, they can be dangerous if mistreated, and, because they are less durable, may have a shorter lifespan compared to other battery types.

===Lithium Ion Polymer===

'''Lithium ion polymer''' batteries, or more commonly lithium polymer batteries (Abbreviated Li-Poly or LiPo) are rechargeable batteries which have technologically evolved from lithium ion batteries. Ultimately, the lithium salt electrolyte is not held in an organic solvent like in the proven lithium ion design, but in a solid polymer composite such as polyacrylonitrile. There are many advantages of this design over the classic lithium ion design, including the fact that the solid polymer electrolyte is not flammable (unlike the organic solvent that the Li-Ion cell uses); thus, these batteries are less hazardous if mistreated.

===Zinc-air===

'''Zinc-air''' batteries, also called "zinc-air fuel cells" are a non-rechargeable electro-chemical battery powered by the oxidation of zinc with oxygen from the air. These batteries have very high energy densities and are relatively inexpensive to produce. Zinc-air batteries have properties of fuel cells as well as batteries: the zinc is the fuel; the rate of the reaction can be controlled by controlling the air flow; and used zinc/electrolyte paste can be removed from the cell and replaced with fresh paste. Research is being conducted in powering electric vehicles with zinc-air batteries.

Both Li-Poly and Zinc-air batteries have demonstrated energy densities high enough to deliver range and recharge times comparable to conventional vehicles.

==The Future==
[[Image:Mitsubishi_Concept_CT.jpg|frame|Mitsubishi Concept CT Electric Vehicle]]
Based on further changes agreed upon in 2003, the ZEV program is now scheduled to restart in 2005 with a set of complicated rules and tables that will allow carmakers to use low-speed, low-range electric cars, hybrids, full function electric cars and ultimately [http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/fuelcell.shtml fuel cells] to pass prescribed standards and quantities up through 2017. These ZEV mandates could significantly increase the number of hybrids on the road.

The future of battery electric vehicles depends primarily upon the availability of batteries with high energy densities, power density, long life, and reasonable cost as all other aspects such as motors, motor controllers, and chargers are fairly mature and cost competitive with ICE components. As hybrids become more refined, battery life, capacity and energy density will improve and the combustion engine will be used less (particular with [[Plug-In Hybrids|PHEVs]]). At some point it may become economic for hybrids to be sold without their ICE, finally leading to [[Electric Vehicles|Battery Electric Vehicles]] (BEVs) being commonplace.

Critics claim that batteries pose a serious environmental hazard requiring significant disposal or recycling costs. Some of the chemicals used in the manufacture of advanced batteries such as Li-ion, Li ion polymer and zinc-air are hazardous and potentially environmentally damaging. While these technologies are developed for small markets this is not a concern, but if production was to be scaled to match current car demand the risks might become unacceptable.

Supporters counter with the fact that traditional car batteries are one of the most successful recycling programs and that widespread use of battery electric vehicles would require the implementation of similar recycling regulations. More modern formulations also tend to use lighter, more biologically remediable elements such as iron, lithium, carbon and zinc. In particular, moving away from the heavy metals cadmium and chromium makes disposal less critical.

It is also not clear that batteries pose any greater risk than is currently accepted for fossil fuel based transport. Petrol and diesel powered transportation cause significant environmental damage in the form of spills, smog and distillation byproducts.

==External Links==

http://www.hybridcars.com/battery-comparison.html

http://www.evworld.com/view.cfm?section=article&storyid=1042

http://www.evworld.com/evguide.cfm?section=evguide&evtype=production

http://media.mitsubishi-motors.com/pressrelease/e/corporate/detail1269.html

2006-07-09T19:44:38Z

Mcniel: /* Brief History */

==Brief History==
[[Image:250px-GM_EV-1-.jpg|frame|General Motors EV1]]
In 1990, the auto industry was forced into establishing an electric passenger car market when California’s Air Resources Board (CARB) implemented a Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) program: 2% of the vehicles produced for sale in California had to be ZEVs, increasing to 5% in 2001 and 10 percent in 2003. The CARB attempted to set a minimum quota for the use of electric cars, but this was withdrawn after complaints by auto manufacturers that the quotas were economically unfeasible due to a lack of consumer demand. By 1996, CARB backed down on the 1998 deadline for the program, and in 2001, the program relaxed its standards to include “partial” zero emission vehicles (PZEV). Since the California program was designed by the CARB to reduce air pollution and not to promote electric vehicles, the zero emissions requirement in California was replaced by a combination requirement of a tiny number of zero-emissions vehicles (to promote research and development) and a much larger number of partial zero-emissions vehicles (PZEVs), which is an administrative designation for an super ultra low emissions vehicle (SULEV), which emits polution of about ten percent of that of an ordinary low emissions vehicle when in operation and is also certified for zero evaporative emissions at all times.

With the advent of the electric car came the need for new battery technologies to make them a viable alternative in the modern automotive market.

==Introduction==
[[Image:Escape_Hybrid_battery_pack.jpg|frame|Ford Escape Hybrid battery pack]]
Production of purely [[Electric Vehicles|electric vehicles]] for commercial use has fallen by the wayside. General Motors, Ford, Honda and Toyota have all discontinued their electric vehicle (EV) programs - despite growing concern for the environment and over ever-increasing fuel costs, the market for EVs never really flourished. Evolving from these early electric vehicles, today's hybrid vehicles use electricity stored in batteries to assist the gasoline engine and to completely power the vehicle while idling or at consistent low speeds. Because these hybrids also use a gas engine, the battery is substantially smaller than those that were used in the purely electric vehicles. Vehicles such as the [[Toyota Prius]], [[Honda Civic Hybrid]] and [[Ford Escape Hybrid]] include drive-train management systems that automatically decide when to use the batteries or internal-combustion engine.

However, improvements in battery technology may one day resurrect EVs by extending their driving range. Electric vehicle advocates and engineers are now looking at gas-electric hybrids, which, unlike current hybrid offerings, could be [[Plug-In Hybrids|plugged in]] to provide a greater capacity for running purely on electric power. A [[Plug-In Hybrids|'plug-in']] hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a hybrid which has additional battery capacity and the ability to be recharged from an external electrical outlet. The vehicle can be used for short trips of moderate speed without needing the internal combustion engine (ICE) component of the vehicle, thereby saving fuel costs.

==Battery Types==

===Lead Acid===

The lead acid battery in a conventional car contains enough energy to drive a small electric motor; these batteries are designed to deliver a burst of current for a short period of time only. Otherwise, the battery is only needed to support accessories such as the radio, lighting, power windows, etc. while the engine is not running. A hybrid vehicle uses a conventional lead acid battery for all the same reasons that a conventional car does; however, a hybrid also has a rechargeable deep cycle battery. The difference is that hybrid vehicles use electric motors to provide some portion of their driving force, and therefore need a great deal of stored electrical energy. And unlike gasoline engines, electric motors can be greater than 90 percent efficient at using that electrical energy.

Lead acid batteries were found to have too many limitations, making their continued use impractical. Because they are so heavy, it is unreasonable to add more or larger units in order to cope with the higher electrical demands of hybrid vehicles. They are also relatively slow charging, and do not lend themselves to deep cycling - a full discharge causes extra strain, and each cycle robs the battery of a small amount of capacity. They also pose more environmental concerns regarding proper disposal/recycling.

Lead-free alternatives, such as nickel metal hydride and lithium ion batteries, are already on the market in electric and electric-hybrid vehicles, and offer several advantages over conventional lead acid starter batteries. Performance and environmental benefits include:

*Higher energy (power) density
*Reduced weight/volume
*Longer battery life
*Improved fuel economy due to lighter weight and higher energy capacity
*Less material used, lower toxicity, and potentially recyclable

===Nickel Metal Hydride===
[[Image:Prius_NiMH.jpg|frame|Toyota Prius NiMH battery]]

A '''[[Battery Technology|nickel metal hydride]]''' battery (abbreviated NiMH) is a type of rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery, but has a hydride absorbing alloy for the anode instead of cadmium, which is an environmental hazard; therefore, it is less detrimental to the environment. Nickel metal hydride batteries are lightweight, have a longer shelf life, and produce more energy than lead acid batteries.
For example: the first generation GM EV1s used lead-acid batteries in 1996, and a second generation batch with nickel metal hydride batteries in 1999. The "Gen I" cars got 55 to 95 miles (90 to 150 km) per charge with the lead acid batteries, while "Gen II" cars got an improved 75 to 150 miles (120 to 240 km) per charge with nickel metal hydride batteries.

Most - not all - current [[Hybrid Cars|hybrids]] have a rechargeable NiMH battery as an integral part of their hybrid system, to assist in fuel savings and lower emissions. Applications of NiMH type batteries include hybrid vehicles such as the [[Honda Insight]] and [[Toyota Prius]]. NiMH batteries are a major step up from the lead acid variety; however, while more powerful than lead acid batteries, they have not provided the long-term cost benefits that were hoped for - the power of nickel batteries comes from the raw material, which is getting more expensive due to increased demand.

===Lithium Ion===

'''Lithium ion''' batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-Ion) are a type of rechargeable battery commonly used in consumer electronics. They are currently one of the most popular types of battery, with one of the best energy-to-weight ratios, no memory effect and a slow loss of charge when not in use. Lithium ion battery applications have the potential of eclipsing the NiMH battery in hybrid vehicles [http://www.hybridcars.com/lithium-ion-hybrid-batteries.html]; compared to a lithium ion battery, the NiMH battery's ''volumetric energy density'' (amount of potential energy stored in the battery) is lower and self-discharge is higher. Lithium ion batteries are smaller, lighter, and have fewer volatile gases than NiMH batteries. The production cost of these lighter, higher-capacity lithium batteries is gradually decreasing as the technology matures and production volumes increase through mass processing, which can scale to the high volumes required for the rapidly growing hybrid market - without a corresponding jump in price. However, they are not currently scaled for use in [[Hybrid Cars|hybrid]] vehicle applications - while they have potential cost-saving attributes, they can be dangerous if mistreated, and, because they are less durable, may have a shorter lifespan compared to other battery types.

===Lithium Ion Polymer===

'''Lithium ion polymer''' batteries, or more commonly lithium polymer batteries (Abbreviated Li-Poly or LiPo) are rechargeable batteries which have technologically evolved from lithium ion batteries. Ultimately, the lithium salt electrolyte is not held in an organic solvent like in the proven lithium ion design, but in a solid polymer composite such as polyacrylonitrile. There are many advantages of this design over the classic lithium ion design, including the fact that the solid polymer electrolyte is not flammable (unlike the organic solvent that the Li-Ion cell uses); thus, these batteries are less hazardous if mistreated.

===Zinc-air===

'''Zinc-air''' batteries, also called "zinc-air fuel cells" are a non-rechargeable electro-chemical battery powered by the oxidation of zinc with oxygen from the air. These batteries have very high energy densities and are relatively inexpensive to produce. Zinc-air batteries have properties of fuel cells as well as batteries: the zinc is the fuel; the rate of the reaction can be controlled by controlling the air flow; and used zinc/electrolyte paste can be removed from the cell and replaced with fresh paste. Research is being conducted in powering electric vehicles with zinc-air batteries.

Both Li-Poly and Zinc-air batteries have demonstrated energy densities high enough to deliver range and recharge times comparable to conventional vehicles.

==The Future==

The future of battery electric vehicles depends primarily upon the availability of batteries with high energy densities, power density, long life, and reasonable cost as all other aspects such as motors, motor controllers, and chargers are fairly mature and cost competitive with ICE components.

While hybrid vehicles apply many of the technical advances first developed for BEVs, they are not considered BEVs. Of interest to BEV developers, however, is the fact that hybrid vehicles are advancing the state of the art (in cost/performance ratios) of batteries, electric motors, chargers, and motor controllers, which may bode well for the future of both pure electric vehicles and the so called "plug-in hybrid".

The most likely future for BEVs currently appears to be the incremental improvements needed for hybrids. Hybrid EVs are a smaller step from purely ICE driven cars, yet share much of the same core technology as true BEVs. As hybrids become more refined, battery life, capacity and energy density will improve and the combustion engine will be used less (particular with PHEVs). At some point it may become economic for hybrids to be sold without their ICE, finally leading to Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) being commonplace.

Critics claim that batteries pose a serious environmental hazard requiring significant disposal or recycling costs. Some of the chemicals used in the manufacture of advanced batteries such as Li-ion, Li ion polymer and zinc-air are hazardous and potentially environmentally damaging. While these technologies are developed for small markets this is not a concern, but if production was to be scaled to match current car demand the risks might become unacceptable.

Supporters counter with the fact that traditional car batteries are one of the most successful recycling programs and that widespread use of battery electric vehicles would require the implementation of similar recycling regulations. More modern formulations also tend to use lighter, more biologically remediable elements such as iron, lithium, carbon and zinc. In particular, moving away from the heavy metals cadmium and chromium makes disposal less critical.

It is also not clear that batteries pose any greater risk than is currently accepted for fossil fuel based transport. Petrol and diesel powered transportation cause significant environmental damage in the form of spills, smog and distillation byproducts.

==External Links==

http://www.hybridcars.com/battery-comparison.html

http://www.evworld.com/view.cfm?section=article&storyid=1042

Battery Technology

2006-07-09T19:41:37Z

Mcniel: /* Introduction */

==Brief History==
[[Image:250px-GM_EV-1-.jpg|frame|General Motors EV1]]
In 1990, the auto industry was forced into establishing an electric passenger car market when California’s Air Resources Board (CARB) implemented a Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) program: 2% of the vehicles produced for sale in California had to be ZEVs, increasing to 5% in 2001 and 10 percent in 2003. The CARB attempted to set a minimum quota for the use of electric cars, but this was withdrawn after complaints by auto manufacturers that the quotas were economically unfeasible due to a lack of consumer demand. However, many believe this complaint to be unwarranted due to the claim that there were thousands waiting to purchase or lease electric cars from companies such as General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler in which these companies refused to meet that demand despite their production capability. Others note that the original electric car leases were at reduced cost and the program could not be expected to draw the high volumes required without selling or renting the cars at a financial loss. By 1996, CARB backed down on the 1998 deadline for the program, and in 2001, the program relaxed its standards to include “partial” zero emission vehicles (PZEV). Since the California program was designed by the CARB to reduce air pollution and not to promote electric vehicles, the zero emissions requirement in California was replaced by a combination requirement of a tiny number of zero-emissions vehicles (to promote research and development) and a much larger number of partial zero-emissions vehicles (PZEVs), which is an administrative designation for an super ultra low emissions vehicle (SULEV), which emits polution of about ten percent of that of an ordinary low emissions vehicle when in operation and is also certified for zero evaporative emissions at all times.

Based on further changes agreed upon in 2003, the ZEV program is scheduled to restart in 2005 with a set of complicated rules and tables which allow carmakers to use low-speed, low-range electric cars, hybrids, full function electric cars and ultimately fuel cells to pass prescribed standards and quantities up through 2017. These ZEV mandates could significantly increase the number of hybrids on the road.

With the advent of the electric car came the need for new battery technologies to make them a viable alternative in the modern automotive market.

==Introduction==
[[Image:Escape_Hybrid_battery_pack.jpg|frame|Ford Escape Hybrid battery pack]]
Production of purely [[Electric Vehicles|electric vehicles]] for commercial use has fallen by the wayside. General Motors, Ford, Honda and Toyota have all discontinued their electric vehicle (EV) programs - despite growing concern for the environment and over ever-increasing fuel costs, the market for EVs never really flourished. Evolving from these early electric vehicles, today's hybrid vehicles use electricity stored in batteries to assist the gasoline engine and to completely power the vehicle while idling or at consistent low speeds. Because these hybrids also use a gas engine, the battery is substantially smaller than those that were used in the purely electric vehicles. Vehicles such as the [[Toyota Prius]], [[Honda Civic Hybrid]] and [[Ford Escape Hybrid]] include drive-train management systems that automatically decide when to use the batteries or internal-combustion engine.

However, improvements in battery technology may one day resurrect EVs by extending their driving range. Electric vehicle advocates and engineers are now looking at gas-electric hybrids, which, unlike current hybrid offerings, could be [[Plug-In Hybrids|plugged in]] to provide a greater capacity for running purely on electric power. A [[Plug-In Hybrids|'plug-in']] hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a hybrid which has additional battery capacity and the ability to be recharged from an external electrical outlet. The vehicle can be used for short trips of moderate speed without needing the internal combustion engine (ICE) component of the vehicle, thereby saving fuel costs.

==Battery Types==

===Lead Acid===

The lead acid battery in a conventional car contains enough energy to drive a small electric motor; these batteries are designed to deliver a burst of current for a short period of time only. Otherwise, the battery is only needed to support accessories such as the radio, lighting, power windows, etc. while the engine is not running. A hybrid vehicle uses a conventional lead acid battery for all the same reasons that a conventional car does; however, a hybrid also has a rechargeable deep cycle battery. The difference is that hybrid vehicles use electric motors to provide some portion of their driving force, and therefore need a great deal of stored electrical energy. And unlike gasoline engines, electric motors can be greater than 90 percent efficient at using that electrical energy.

Lead acid batteries were found to have too many limitations, making their continued use impractical. Because they are so heavy, it is unreasonable to add more or larger units in order to cope with the higher electrical demands of hybrid vehicles. They are also relatively slow charging, and do not lend themselves to deep cycling - a full discharge causes extra strain, and each cycle robs the battery of a small amount of capacity. They also pose more environmental concerns regarding proper disposal/recycling.

Lead-free alternatives, such as nickel metal hydride and lithium ion batteries, are already on the market in electric and electric-hybrid vehicles, and offer several advantages over conventional lead acid starter batteries. Performance and environmental benefits include:

*Higher energy (power) density
*Reduced weight/volume
*Longer battery life
*Improved fuel economy due to lighter weight and higher energy capacity
*Less material used, lower toxicity, and potentially recyclable

===Nickel Metal Hydride===
[[Image:Prius_NiMH.jpg|frame|Toyota Prius NiMH battery]]

A '''[[Battery Technology|nickel metal hydride]]''' battery (abbreviated NiMH) is a type of rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium (NiCd) battery, but has a hydride absorbing alloy for the anode instead of cadmium, which is an environmental hazard; therefore, it is less detrimental to the environment. Nickel metal hydride batteries are lightweight, have a longer shelf life, and produce more energy than lead acid batteries.
For example: the first generation GM EV1s used lead-acid batteries in 1996, and a second generation batch with nickel metal hydride batteries in 1999. The "Gen I" cars got 55 to 95 miles (90 to 150 km) per charge with the lead acid batteries, while "Gen II" cars got an improved 75 to 150 miles (120 to 240 km) per charge with nickel metal hydride batteries.

Most - not all - current [[Hybrid Cars|hybrids]] have a rechargeable NiMH battery as an integral part of their hybrid system, to assist in fuel savings and lower emissions. Applications of NiMH type batteries include hybrid vehicles such as the [[Honda Insight]] and [[Toyota Prius]]. NiMH batteries are a major step up from the lead acid variety; however, while more powerful than lead acid batteries, they have not provided the long-term cost benefits that were hoped for - the power of nickel batteries comes from the raw material, which is getting more expensive due to increased demand.

===Lithium Ion===

'''Lithium ion''' batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-Ion) are a type of rechargeable battery commonly used in consumer electronics. They are currently one of the most popular types of battery, with one of the best energy-to-weight ratios, no memory effect and a slow loss of charge when not in use. Lithium ion battery applications have the potential of eclipsing the NiMH battery in hybrid vehicles [http://www.hybridcars.com/lithium-ion-hybrid-batteries.html]; compared to a lithium ion battery, the NiMH battery's ''volumetric energy density'' (amount of potential energy stored in the battery) is lower and self-discharge is higher. Lithium ion batteries are smaller, lighter, and have fewer volatile gases than NiMH batteries. The production cost of these lighter, higher-capacity lithium batteries is gradually decreasing as the technology matures and production volumes increase through mass processing, which can scale to the high volumes required for the rapidly growing hybrid market - without a corresponding jump in price. However, they are not currently scaled for use in [[Hybrid Cars|hybrid]] vehicle applications - while they have potential cost-saving attributes, they can be dangerous if mistreated, and, because they are less durable, may have a shorter lifespan compared to other battery types.

===Lithium Ion Polymer===

'''Lithium ion polymer''' batteries, or more commonly lithium polymer batteries (Abbreviated Li-Poly or LiPo) are rechargeable batteries which have technologically evolved from lithium ion batteries. Ultimately, the lithium salt electrolyte is not held in an organic solvent like in the proven lithium ion design, but in a solid polymer composite such as polyacrylonitrile. There are many advantages of this design over the classic lithium ion design, including the fact that the solid polymer electrolyte is not flammable (unlike the organic solvent that the Li-Ion cell uses); thus, these batteries are less hazardous if mistreated.

===Zinc-air===

'''Zinc-air''' batteries, also called "zinc-air fuel cells" are a non-rechargeable electro-chemical battery powered by the oxidation of zinc with oxygen from the air. These batteries have very high energy densities and are relatively inexpensive to produce. Zinc-air batteries have properties of fuel cells as well as batteries: the zinc is the fuel; the rate of the reaction can be controlled by controlling the air flow; and used zinc/electrolyte paste can be removed from the cell and replaced with fresh paste. Research is being conducted in powering electric vehicles with zinc-air batteries.

Both Li-Poly and Zinc-air batteries have demonstrated energy densities high enough to deliver range and recharge times comparable to conventional vehicles.

==The Future==

The future of battery electric vehicles depends primarily upon the availability of batteries with high energy densities, power density, long life, and reasonable cost as all other aspects such as motors, motor controllers, and chargers are fairly mature and cost competitive with ICE components.

While hybrid vehicles apply many of the technical advances first developed for BEVs, they are not considered BEVs. Of interest to BEV developers, however, is the fact that hybrid vehicles are advancing the state of the art (in cost/performance ratios) of batteries, electric motors, chargers, and motor controllers, which may bode well for the future of both pure electric vehicles and the so called "plug-in hybrid".

The most likely future for BEVs currently appears to be the incremental improvements needed for hybrids. Hybrid EVs are a smaller step from purely ICE driven cars, yet share much of the same core technology as true BEVs. As hybrids become more refined, battery life, capacity and energy density will improve and the combustion engine will be used less (particular with PHEVs). At some point it may become economic for hybrids to be sold without their ICE, finally leading to Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) being commonplace.

Critics claim that batteries pose a serious environmental hazard requiring significant disposal or recycling costs. Some of the chemicals used in the manufacture of advanced batteries such as Li-ion, Li ion polymer and zinc-air are hazardous and potentially environmentally damaging. While these technologies are developed for small markets this is not a concern, but if production was to be scaled to match current car demand the risks might become unacceptable.

Supporters counter with the fact that traditional car batteries are one of the most successful recycling programs and that widespread use of battery electric vehicles would require the implementation of similar recycling regulations. More modern formulations also tend to use lighter, more biologically remediable elements such as iron, lithium, carbon and zinc. In particular, moving away from the heavy metals cadmium and chromium makes disposal less critical.

It is also not clear that batteries pose any greater risk than is currently accepted for fossil fuel based transport. Petrol and diesel powered transportation cause significant environmental damage in the form of spills, smog and distillation byproducts.

==External Links==

http://www.hybridcars.com/battery-comparison.html

http://www.evworld.com/view.cfm?section=article&storyid=1042

File:Escape Hybrid battery pack.jpg

2006-07-09T19:40:55Z

Mcniel:

Regenerative Braking

2006-07-09T19:24:11Z

Mcniel: /* External Links */

[[Image:Regen_braking.gif|right]]'''Regenerative braking''' allows a vehicle to recapture part of the energy that would otherwise be 'lost' to heat when braking, and make use of that power by storing it in the vehicles on-board [[Battery Technology|battery system]]. The vehicles electric motor becomes a generator when coasting or braking, keeping the battery charged up and ready for the next start and accelerate situation. Because of constant stop and go driving conditions in city driving, this is why [[Hybrid Cars|hybrid vehicles]] are more efficient in city use.

All [[Hybrid Cars|hybrid vehicles]] on the market today make use of regenerative braking.

==External Links==

http://www.hybridcars.com/renerative-braking.html

http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/hybridAnimation/fullhybrid/fullhybridbraking.html

2006-07-09T17:59:21Z

Mcniel:

[[Image:IMA_Civic.jpg|frame|Honda Civic Hybrid IMA]]
'''Integrated Motor Assist''' (commonly abbreviated as '''IMA''') is [[Honda]]'s [[Hybrid Cars|hybrid]] car technology, introduced in 1999 on the Insight. It uses both a gasoline engine and a thin, compact permanent magnet electric motor/generator mounted between the engine and transmission to act as a starter motor, engine balancer, and assist traction motor. The internal combustion engine (ICE) provides all the power needed for most driving situations. When additional power is needed, such as under initial acceleration from a stop, during passing or when climbing grades, the integrated electric motor/generator performs in ways similar to a [[Supercharged Engine|supercharger]], seamlessly kicking in to supply additional power. The motor/generator also functions as a high-speed starter and as a generator for battery charging during regenerative braking. A [[Battery Technology|nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)]] battery pack is used in all Honda hybrids; it features stable output characteristics regardless of the state-of-charge status and is also extremely durable, designed to last 10 years under normal driving conditions.
[[Image:IMAOperation.jpg|thumb]]
The theory behind IMA is to use [[Regenerative Braking]] to recapture some of the energy lost through deceleration, and reuse that energy later on to help accelerate the vehicle. This has two effects: it increases the rate of acceleration, and it reduces the work required of the gasoline engine. The acceleration boost is important, as it allows the engine to be scaled down to a smaller but more fuel-efficient variant without rendering the vehicle overly slow or weak. This smaller engine is the primary reason cars equipped with IMA get better highway mileage than their more conventional counterparts.

Additionally, vehicles equipped with IMA can shut off their engine when the vehicle stops and use the electric motor to rapidly spin it back up when the driver releases the brake pedal. They also have a conventional starter as a backup, making it the only production hybrid system which can operate with its high voltage electric system disabled, using only its ICE like a traditional vehicle. However, since the IMA also acts as the vehicle's alternator, eventually the 12 V accessory battery would require an external charge.

==Honda Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) Applications==
[[Image:Honda_IMA.jpg|frame|Honda Integrated Motor Assist (IMA)]]

'''Vehicles Using IMA:'''

*[[Honda Insight]] (1999-2006)
*[[Honda Civic Hybrid]] (2003-)
*[[Honda Accord Hybrid]] (2005-)

===Insight===
[[Image:2006_Insight.jpg|frame|2006 Honda Insight]]
The Insight is most commonly referred to as a [[Mild Hybrid]] vehicle. In mild hybrids, the gas engine provides the main propulsion, and the electric motor provides assist whenever extra power is needed. In this arrangement, the electric motor cannot operate independently of the gas engine. The electric motor can generate electricity for the battery or consume electricity from the battery, but not both at the same time. In contrast, a [[Full Hybrid]] integrates the electric motor, gas engine and battery, so that the electric motor can operate on its own when certain conditions are met. For some hybrids, it does this under low speed; once the vehicle reaches higher speeds, the gasoline engine starts up and takes over. Under hard acceleration, both the gas engine and the electric motor can work together to provide the needed power. Unlike mild hybrids, full hybrids are able to generate and consume electricity at the same time.

===Civic Hybrid===
[[Image:2006_Civic_Hybrid.jpg|frame|2006 Honda Civic Hybrid]]
In its first generation, IMA technology could not power the car on electricity alone, and could only use the motor to assist or start the engine. Like the Insight, the 2003-2005 Civic Hybrid was considered a mild hybrid. By 2006, however, it moved into full hybrid territory. Its electric motor is now able to propel the car from a stop to speeds up to 35 mph; while the Civic Hybrid cannot start from a stoplight under electric power alone, it can activate the electric motor while the vehicle is coasting without turning the ICE on, providing the sole means of propulsion.

===Accord Hybrid===
[[Image:2006_Accord_Hybrid.jpg|frame|2006 Honda Accord Hybrid]]
The all-new 2005 [[Honda Accord Hybrid]] was the first [[V6|V6]]-powered hybrid vehicle to market, adding more power to Honda's hybrid lineup while still retaining gas mileage and emissions levels more in line with the Civic Hybrid. In fact, the Accord Hybrid combines its V6 and electric motor to generate a total of 253 [[HP|horsepower]] - 9 more than the standard gasoline-only V6 engine.

The Accord Hybrid utilizies the third generation of Honda's advanced IMA full hybrid system and incorporates a new [[Variable Cylinder Management]] (VCM) cylinder deactivation technology. When cruising at steady speeds where less engine power is required, the VCM system deactivates the V-6 engine's rear bank of cylinders, closing both the intake and exhaust valves for reduced fuel consumption. Under light acceleration from a cruising state, the IMA motor can provide power assistance to the engine in three-cylinder mode. When coming to a stop, the IMA system shuts off the vehicle's engine at speeds below 10mph to reduce fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. At the moment the driver releases the brake pedal, the IMA motor instantaneously restarts the gasoline engine.

Integrated Motor Assist (IMA)

2006-07-09T17:49:10Z

Mcniel:

[[Image:IMA_Civic.jpg|frame|Honda Civic Hybrid IMA]]
'''Integrated Motor Assist''' (commonly abbreviated as '''IMA''') is [[Honda]]'s [[Hybrid Cars|hybrid]] car technology, introduced in 1999 on the Insight. It uses both a gasoline engine and a thin, compact permanent magnet electric motor/generator mounted between the engine and transmission to act as a starter motor, engine balancer, and assist traction motor. The internal combustion engine (ICE) provides all the power needed for most driving situations. When additional power is needed, such as under initial acceleration from a stop, during passing or when climbing grades, the integrated electric motor/generator performs in ways similar to a [[Supercharged Engine|supercharger]], seamlessly kicking in to supply additional power. The motor/generator also functions as a high-speed starter and as a generator for battery charging during regenerative braking. A [[Battery Technology|nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)]] battery pack is used in all Honda hybrids; it features stable output characteristics regardless of the state-of-charge status and is also extremely durable, designed to last 10 years under normal driving conditions.
[[Image:IMAOperation.jpg|thumb]]
The theory behind IMA is to use [[Regenerative Braking]] to recapture some of the energy lost through deceleration, and reuse that energy later on to help accelerate the vehicle. This has two effects: it increases the rate of acceleration, and it reduces the work required of the gasoline engine. The acceleration boost is important, as it allows the engine to be scaled down to a smaller but more fuel-efficient variant without rendering the vehicle overly slow or weak. This smaller engine is the primary reason cars equipped with IMA get better highway mileage than their more conventional counterparts.

Additionally, vehicles equipped with IMA can shut off their engine when the vehicle stops and use the electric motor to rapidly spin it back up when the driver releases the brake pedal. They also have a conventional starter as a backup, making it the only production hybrid system which can operate with its high voltage electric system disabled, using only its ICE like a traditional vehicle. However, since the IMA also acts as the vehicle's alternator, eventually the 12 V accessory battery would require an external charge.

==Honda Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) Applications==
[[Image:Honda_IMA.jpg|frame|Honda Integrated Motor Assist (IMA)]]

'''Vehicles Using IMA:'''

*[[Honda Insight]] (1999-2006)
*[[Honda Civic Hybrid]] (2003-)
*[[Honda Accord Hybrid]] (2005-)

===Insight===
[[Image:2006_Insight.jpg|frame|2006 Honda Insight]]
The [[Honda Insight]] and the 2003-2005 [[Honda Civic Hybrid]] are most commonly referred to as [[Mild Hybrid]] vehicles. In mild hybrids, the gas engine provides the main propulsion, and the electric motor provides assist whenever extra power is needed. In this arrangement, the electric motor cannot operate independently of the gas engine. The electric motor can generate electricity for the battery or consume electricity from the battery, but not both at the same time. In contrast, a [[Full Hybrid]] integrates the electric motor, gas engine and battery, so that the electric motor can operate on its own when certain conditions are met. For some hybrids, it does this under low speed; once the vehicle reaches higher speeds, the gasoline engine starts up and takes over. Under hard acceleration, both the gas engine and the electric motor can work together to provide the needed power. Unlike mild hybrids, full hybrids are able to generate and consume electricity at the same time.

===Civic Hybrid===
[[Image:2006_Civic_Hybrid.jpg|frame|2006 Honda Civic Hybrid]]
In its first generation, IMA technology could not power the car on electricity alone, and could only use the motor to assist or start the engine. By 2006, however, the Civic Hybrid moved into full hybrid territory. Its electric motor is now able to propel the car from a stop to speeds up to 35 mph; while the Civic Hybrid cannot start from a stoplight under electric power alone, it can activate the electric motor while the vehicle is coasting without turning the ICE on, providing the sole means of propulsion.

===Accord Hybrid===
[[Image:2006_Accord_Hybrid.jpg|frame|2006 Honda Accord Hybrid]]
The all-new 2005 [[Honda Accord Hybrid]] was the first [[V6|V6]]-powered hybrid vehicle to market, adding more power to Honda's hybrid lineup while still retaining gas mileage and emissions levels more in line with the Civic Hybrid. In fact, the Accord Hybrid combines its V6 and electric motor to generate a total of 253 [[HP|horsepower]] - 9 more than the standard gasoline-only V6 engine.

The Accord Hybrid utilizies the third generation of Honda's advanced IMA full hybrid system and incorporates a new [[Variable Cylinder Management]] (VCM) cylinder deactivation technology. When cruising at steady speeds where less engine power is required, the VCM system deactivates the V-6 engine's rear bank of cylinders, closing both the intake and exhaust valves for reduced fuel consumption. Under light acceleration from a cruising state, the IMA motor can provide power assistance to the engine in three-cylinder mode. When coming to a stop, the IMA system shuts off the vehicle's engine at speeds below 10mph to reduce fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. At the moment the driver releases the brake pedal, the IMA motor instantaneously restarts the gasoline engine.

File:IMA Civic.jpg

2006-07-09T17:44:28Z

Mcniel:

Integrated Motor Assist (IMA)

2006-07-09T17:43:23Z

Mcniel:

[[Image:IMAOperation.jpg|thumb]]
'''Integrated Motor Assist''' (commonly abbreviated as '''IMA''') is [[Honda]]'s [[Hybrid Cars|hybrid]] car technology, introduced in 1999 on the Insight. It uses both a gasoline engine and a thin, compact permanent magnet electric motor/generator mounted between the engine and transmission to act as a starter motor, engine balancer, and assist traction motor. The internal combustion engine (ICE) provides all the power needed for most driving situations. When additional power is needed, such as under initial acceleration from a stop, during passing or when climbing grades, the integrated electric motor/generator performs in ways similar to a [[Supercharged Engine|supercharger]], seamlessly kicking in to supply additional power. The motor/generator also functions as a high-speed starter and as a generator for battery charging during regenerative braking. A [[Battery Technology|nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)]] battery pack is used in all Honda hybrids; it features stable output characteristics regardless of the state-of-charge status and is also extremely durable, designed to last 10 years under normal driving conditions.

The theory behind IMA is to use [[Regenerative Braking]] to recapture some of the energy lost through deceleration, and reuse that energy later on to help accelerate the vehicle. This has two effects: it increases the rate of acceleration, and it reduces the work required of the gasoline engine. The acceleration boost is important, as it allows the engine to be scaled down to a smaller but more fuel-efficient variant without rendering the vehicle overly slow or weak. This smaller engine is the primary reason cars equipped with IMA get better highway mileage than their more conventional counterparts.

Additionally, vehicles equipped with IMA can shut off their engine when the vehicle stops and use the electric motor to rapidly spin it back up when the driver releases the brake pedal. They also have a conventional starter as a backup, making it the only production hybrid system which can operate with its high voltage electric system disabled, using only its ICE like a traditional vehicle. However, since the IMA also acts as the vehicle's alternator, eventually the 12 V accessory battery would require an external charge.

==Honda Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) Applications==
[[Image:Honda_IMA.jpg|frame|Honda Integrated Motor Assist (IMA)]]

'''Vehicles Using IMA:'''

*[[Honda Insight]] (1999-2006)
*[[Honda Civic Hybrid]] (2003-)
*[[Honda Accord Hybrid]] (2005-)

===Insight===
[[Image:2006_Insight.jpg|frame|2006 Honda Insight]]
The [[Honda Insight]] and the 2003-2005 [[Honda Civic Hybrid]] are most commonly referred to as [[Mild Hybrid]] vehicles. In mild hybrids, the gas engine provides the main propulsion, and the electric motor provides assist whenever extra power is needed. In this arrangement, the electric motor cannot operate independently of the gas engine. The electric motor can generate electricity for the battery or consume electricity from the battery, but not both at the same time. In contrast, a [[Full Hybrid]] integrates the electric motor, gas engine and battery, so that the electric motor can operate on its own when certain conditions are met. For some hybrids, it does this under low speed; once the vehicle reaches higher speeds, the gasoline engine starts up and takes over. Under hard acceleration, both the gas engine and the electric motor can work together to provide the needed power. Unlike mild hybrids, full hybrids are able to generate and consume electricity at the same time.

===Civic Hybrid===
[[Image:2006_Civic_Hybrid.jpg|frame|2006 Honda Civic Hybrid]]
In its first generation, IMA technology could not power the car on electricity alone, and could only use the motor to assist or start the engine. By 2006, however, the Civic Hybrid moved into full hybrid territory. Its electric motor is now able to propel the car from a stop to speeds up to 35 mph; while the Civic Hybrid cannot start from a stoplight under electric power alone, it can activate the electric motor while the vehicle is coasting without turning the ICE on, providing the sole means of propulsion.

===Accord Hybrid===
[[Image:2006_Accord_Hybrid.jpg|frame|2006 Honda Accord Hybrid]]
The all-new 2005 [[Honda Accord Hybrid]] was the first [[V6|V6]]-powered hybrid vehicle to market,adding more power to Honda's hybrid lineup while still retaining gas mileage and emissions levels more in line with the Civic Hybrid. In fact, the Accord Hybrid combines its V6 and electric motor to generate a total of 253 [[HP|horsepower]] - 9 more than the standard gasoline-only V6 engine.

The Accord Hybrid utilizies the third generation of Honda's advanced IMA full hybrid system and incorporates a new [[Variable Cylinder Management]] (VCM) cylinder deactivation technology. When cruising at steady speeds where less engine power is required, the VCM system deactivates the V-6 engine's rear bank of cylinders, closing both the intake and exhaust valves for reduced fuel consumption. Under light acceleration from a cruising state, the IMA motor can provide power assistance to the engine in three-cylinder mode. When coming to a stop, the IMA system shuts off the vehicle's engine at speeds below 10mph to reduce fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. At the moment the driver releases the brake pedal, the IMA motor instantaneously restarts the gasoline engine.

File:2006 Accord Hybrid.jpg

2006-07-09T17:41:05Z

Mcniel:

File:2006 Civic Hybrid.jpg

2006-07-09T17:40:57Z

Mcniel:

File:2006 Insight.jpg

2006-07-09T17:40:45Z

Mcniel: